These early numeracy skills lay the foundation for children’s later understanding of arithmetic ( Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999) and predict children’s mathematical achievement years later in third and fifth grades ( Duncan et al., 2007 Watts, Duncan, Siegler, & Davis-Kean, 2014). In the domain of mathematics, studies have documented income-based performance gaps before the start of formal schooling, appearing as significant differences in children’s foundational numeracy skills like counting, recognizing written numerals, and comparing the magnitudes of numbers ( Jordan, Kaplan, Olah, & Locuniak, 2006 Starkey, Klein, & Wakeley, 2004). ![]() ![]() Children from low-income households have lower performance on average on a range of educational outcomes than children from middle- and upper-income households.
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